Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep

Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep 

Ovis Canadensis ssp. Sierrae

Calvin Koleszar

               Bighorn Sheep, one of the Golden States' most iconic animals, is under threat of extinction. In the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range, they are even more threatened than other populations in California. Although seen as a different species in comparison to its Southern California relatives, they are relatively the same in nearly all aspects except horn differentiation. 

               According to The California Department of Fish and Wildlife, by 1995 only 100 Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep remained in sixteen distinct and historic herds. However, due to successful breeding programs and recovery plans, the population has risen to about 600 as of 2014. The map shown above is the current population distribution for the species. The Sierra Nevada Bighorn encompasses a large range of habitats from alpine meadows, rocky mountainsides, and summit plateaus. They tend to avoid dense vegetation for fear of predators. 

               Their population decline can largely be attributed to diseases from livestock in the central valley, predation, unregulated hunting, and habitat destruction. Populations went from a historic population of an estimated 1,000 pre 1900 and dropped dramatically in the twentieth century. The lowest it got was an estimated 100 in 1995, with only five herds remaining. Due to recovery efforts, herd populations have increased to encompass Yosemite National Park, Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park and four national forests in the area. 

               The recovery plan, first implemented in 2007, has brought tremendous results within the populations. Starting in 2007, the population went from roughly 100 since 1999, to about 500 in 2012 and to about 600 in 2014. This is due in part to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife Service, along with other federal bureaucracies, management of: (1) Management of disease risk from domestic sheep, (2) translocations (augmentations and reintroductions) to increase bighorn numbers and their geographic distribution, (3) predator management to limit predation on bighorn sheep, and (4) monitoring and management of genetic variation. They have been exercised in the areas in the map above. With continued anthropogenic help, populations should continue a healthy increase within the next decade. It has been extremely successful so far. Along with that, there have also been reproduction programs to increase different heard sizes by taking female sheep from one group that has a surplus of females and implementing them into other groups that are lacking females and genetic diversity. 

               The way to sustain these populations so they may have a healthy future without the influence of humans is to limit the livestock entering their domain and spreading deadly diseases to the Bighorn Sheep. Now that there are tag limits for hunting, Bighorn Sheep are a lot less susceptible to becoming trophy ornaments. With time and spreading female sheep between herds, genetic diversity should naturally make these populations healthy and sustainable. Locals can also do their part by just staying away from these animals. Interaction with humans and outside species have taken drastic tolls on the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep and if we are to see these populations thrive in the future, we need to let them grow once they become stable enough. 

Works Cited

"Recovery Program." Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Facts - California Department of Fish and Wildlife. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Dec. 2016.

"Recovery Plan for Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep." N.p., n.d. Web.

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Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit - Jae Lee

Please Protect this Precious Rodent, it is Innocent and Furry

(Washington Fish and Wildlife Office)

The Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit
A member of the family of hares and rabbits, Leporidae, the pygmy rabbit is the smallest leporid in North America. The species is notable for its small stature, small features, and gray coloration. The pygmy rabbit's diet consists of mainly sagebrush; relying on it for nearly half its meals in the summer, and consuming almost exclusively sagebrush in the winter (Washington Fish and Wildlife Office). Pygmy rabbits are the only leporids that dig their own burrows, which it uses to take shelter from predators including foxes, badgers, bobcats, and birds of prey (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). 

Geographic and Population Changes

Approximate historical distribution of the pygmy rabbit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

The pygmy rabbit has resided in the Great Basin's shrub steppe biomes in the western United States for more than 100,000 years. Pygmy rabbits have occured in several states including California, Oregon, Nevada, Wyoming, and Montana; however, fossil records indicate that gradual climate change restricted the pygmy's range as sagebrush grew less abundant (U.S Fish and Wildlife Servvice).

Listing

• Classified as a threatened species: 1990 (Washington State)
• Classified as an endangered species: 1993 (Washington State)
• Classified as an endangered species: 1995 (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife)
• Emergency Federal Listing as an endangered species: 2001 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
• Final rule listing as an endangered species: 2003 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Threats

1. Habitat Destruction
   Land development and irrigation has fragmented the Columbia Basin habitat that the pygmy rabbit calls home. Fragmentation restricts the rabbits' range of movement and ability to disperse. Urbanization has converted approximately 60% of the original Columbia Basin shrub steppe habitats, taking away over half of the pygmies' former residences. Its burrows also are shallow enough that walking across one could collapse the shelter entirely.
2. Sagebrush Dependence
   Due to the pygmy rabbit's specialized diet, the vitality of the sagebrush population directly affects the pygmy population. New invasive species of flora in the Columbia Basin provide easy fuel of fires that decimate the sagebrush that the pygmies rely on.
3. Predation
   While pygmy rabbits have adapted the wide variety of predators they face, due to the small size and centralized presence of the population, even normal levels of predation pose a threat to the current Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits.
4. Disease
   Pygmy rabbits are highly susceptible to parasites making them vulnerable to disease. Even in captivity numerous deaths in domestic Columbia Basin pygmies have been related to disease. Coccidiosis and mycobacteriosis are two commonly reported illnesses in pygmy rabbits, with other conditions such as brachydactylia under further investigation. 

Recovery Plan

The originally defined phases of the pygmy rabbit recovery program were stated as:
1. "Removal of abatement of imminent threats in order to prevent the extinction of the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit."
2. "Reestablishment of an appropriate number and distribution of free-ranging subpopulations."
3. "Establishment and protection of a sufficiently resilient, free-ranging population that would be expected to withstand foreseeable long-term threats."

With these ideas in mind, the ultimate goal of the recovery plan is the remove potential threats to the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit, and eventually have the species removed from the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).

Action 1. Focus on captive breeding of Columbia Basin pygmy rabbits
Action 2. Reintroduce pygmy rabbits back to the Columbia Basin ecosystem
Action 3. Search for remaining wild Columbia Basin pygmy populations
Action 4. Protect free-ranging pygmies by removing predators and other threats
Action 5. Protect pygmy rabbit habitats and recovery areas
Action 6. Negotiate with landowners within the pygmy rabbit's historical distribution
Action 7. Address general public to garner support for recovery efforts
Action 8. Establish funding for recovery efforts
Action 9. Revise Recovery Plan as necessary

What can you do?
One of the National Wildlife Federation's priorities is protecting existing sagebrush habitats for potential pygmy populations to occupy (National Wildlife Federation). You can donate to the National Wildlife Federation to help fund efforts to conserve the sagebrush habitat for pygmy rabbits and other species that live there.

References
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Recovery Plan for the Columbia Basin Distinct Population Segment of the Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis). Portland, Oregon. ix + 109 pp.

Washington Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish & Wildlife. "WAFWO - Pygmy Rabbit (Columbia Basin DPS)." WAFWO - Pygmy Rabbit (Columbia Basin DPS). U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2016.

Federation, National Wildlife. "Return of the Mighty Pygmy Rabbit - National Wildlife Federation." National Wildlife Federation. National Wildlife Federation, n.d. Web. 01 Dec. 2016.

Southern Sea Otters by Natalie LaFollette

Southern Sea Otters

By: Natalie LaFollette

Image from: http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/sea-otter/

When I was a kid, one of my favorite places to visit was the Monterey Bay Aquarium. My dad would take me there all the time. We never missed the opening of new exhibit and always went to see the juvenile Great White Sharks on display in their open ocean tank. Over the years, my favorite exhibit has been the sea otters. They are adorable and charismatic, but also powerful swimmers and hunters. I know that I am not alone in my admiration for these marine mammals. 

Overview:

Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) are members of the weasel family and are one of the smallest marine mammals in the world (The Marine Mammal Center). Their trademark characteristic is their extremely dense fur. Otters have two layers of fur, an undercoat and guard hairs, which together add up to at least 650,000 hairs per square inch. That’s a lot of hair! Air is trapped between the layers of fur, which prevents an otter’s skin from getting wet. Young pups have such a large layer of air that they cannot dive and instead float on the surface while their mothers look for food. The otters’ fur keeps them warm in cold waters, but also made them a target for hunters in the 1700 and 1800s (US Fish and Wildlife Service). It is estimated that there were once about 16,000 Southern Sea Otters along California’s coast. Hunting was so extensive that otters were thought to be extinct until a small group was discovered in Big Sur in the late 1930s. All Southern Sea Otters today are descendants of this group. Southern Sea Otters are often called California Sea Otters and are a distinct population from Northern Sea Otters (Recovery Plan). Northern Otters were also hunted extensively, but their populations in Alaska, Russia, and Japan have recovered more quickly than their southern cousins.

Southern Otters are smaller in size than other sea otters (Recovery Plan). Males are about four and a half feet long and weigh sixty-five pounds. While females are about four feet long and weigh forty-five pounds. Southern Otters prefer to live close to shore in areas with extensive kelp forests (The Marine Mammal Center). They use the kelp to anchor themselves and their pups so that they do not float away while sleeping or resting. Kelp forests also provide otters with large amounts of prey. They feed mostly on small, bottom-dwelling invertebrates and use rocks to break open clams and abalone shells. Since they have fur and not blubber to protect them from the cold, they must eat large quantities of food to maintain their body temperature. An otter will regularly eat 15-25% of its weight everyday. That’s a lot of shellfish!

Image from: http://seaotters.com/

Southern Sea Otters live about fifteen to twenty years and begin reproducing when they are between three and five years old (US Fish and Wildlife Service). A female will usually have a single pup every year. Most pups are born sometime between February and April, but they can be born at anytime of the year. While Southern Sea Otter birth rates have been rising, external threats are preventing them from regaining their former range and population levels. 

< Population Distribution and Current Range: Southern Sea Otters were once found along California’s entire coastline (Recovery Plan). Today, their range is limited to the central coast with major population centers in Monterey Bay, Morro Bay, and Pismo Beach. There is also a small population living near San Nicolas Island. They were transplanted there by researches in a failed attempt to establish an otter population along the coast south of Point Conception, CA.    

Image from: http://news.ucsc.edu/2014/09/sea-otter-population.html

Recovery Plan: 

The Southern Sea Otter is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (Recovery Plan). The species was first listed in 1982. By 1989, scientists had decided that they needed to make some modifications to the 1982 recovery plan. Drafts of the new plan were released in 1991, 1996, and 2000. A new finalized Recovery Plan was released in 2003. That took a while! The otters were originally listed because of their small population size and concerns that a single oil spill could wipe out the entire population. 

Today, oil spills still remain the single largest threat to the sea otter population in California. When an otter’s fur is exposed to oil, it can no longer form the layer of air that is necessary to keep them warm (Recovery Plan). Conservative estimates say that a large oil spill would kill at least 50% of otters that came in contact with it. The recovery plan states that researchers should work with the US Coast Guard to monitor drilling activities and oil tankers. With information provided by the Coast Guard, researchers can monitor the risks to otter populations. The plan also calls for an oil spill response plan, which would address how to aid otters if a major spill were to occur along the central coast.  

Disease is a major cause of otter mortality (Recovery Plan). Infectious diseases can easily be spread when otters congregate together or between mothers and pups. The recovery plan calls for researchers to collect tissue samples from otters to do research into potential cures for diseases. Researchers also need to determine if any stressors are making otters more susceptible to disease. For example, an otter that lives in an area where it is frequently interrupted and harassed by humans might be less fit than other individuals. Therefore, it may be more likely to get an infection. 

Incidental take of otters from fishing is also a threat. The magnitude of this threat is difficult to determine and the recovery plan calls for more data to be collected about the causes of otter mortality in general. The plan also asks that fishing regulations be reexamined to ensure that fishermen are taking measures to prevent sea otter take.   

An emerging threat to otters in California is Great White Shark attacks (US Fish and Wildlife Service). At the time that the Recovery Plan was finalized, this was not a major cause of otter mortality. However, in recent years white shark attacks have grown increasingly common. Researchers are still working to determine the cause for this. A possible explanation is the increase in the seal populations in California, which is attracting more Great Whites to the central coast (Rogers).

In order for Southern Sea Otters to be delisted, the species population would have to be above 3,090 individuals for at least 3 years (Recovery Plan). A 2016 survey found that there are currently 3,272 otters along California’s central coast (Rogers). While two more years of data are needed to determine if the otter should be delisted, these are encouraging findings for researchers and otter enthusiasts like myself!

Graph from: http://www.mercurynews.com/2016/09/19/california-sea-otter-population-reaches-record-high-number/

What you can do:

• If you see a stranded otter on the beach keep your distance and call the US Geological Survey at 1-805-927-3893. 
• You can support conservation efforts by donating or volunteering with groups such as the Monterey Bay Aquarium, The Otter Project, and The Marine Mammal Center of San Luis Obispo.

Additional Resources:

• http://www.defenders.org/sea-otter/basic-facts
• http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animal-guide/marine-mammals/southern-sea-otter
• http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/exhibits/otters
• http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/sea-otter/
• https://www.mmc.gov/priority-topics/species-of-concern/southern-sea-otter/
• http://www.werc.usgs.gov/project.aspx?projectid=91

Works Citied:

"Final Revised Recovery Plan for the Southern Sea Otter." US Fish And Wildlife Service. N.p., 24 Feb. 2003. Web. 25 Nov. 2016. <https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/030403.pdf>.

Rogers, Paul. "California Sea Otter Population Reaches Record High Number." The Mercury News. N.p., 19 Sept. 2016. Web. 27 Nov. 2016. <http://www.mercurynews.com/2016/09/19/california-sea-otter-population-reaches-record-high-number/>.

"Sea Otter." The Marine Mammal Center. N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Nov. 2016. <http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/education/marine-mammal-information/sea-otter.html>.

"Southern Sea Otter." Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2016. Web. 25 Nov. 2016. <https://www.fws.gov/ventura/endangered/species/info/sso.html>.

Polar Bears- Rachel Kolokousis

 The Race Against Extinction

Known to all as the polar bear, to most as the King of the Arctic, and to scientists as the Ursus maritumus, these magnificent animals do much more than just serve as the mascot for Coca-Cola. 

Description & Ecology:

For a lot of us, hearing the word blubber may send an image of a pile of gross fat into our minds (or maybe that's just me.) BUT if you were a polar bear, and could understand that word, you would be shouting, "YES PLEASE!" It turns out that blubber is a necessity for polar bears, and seals steal the number one spot on their dietary list, as the seal's blubber is critical for maintaining their massive body weights. (Although they do casually indulge on the remains of whales, or other small mammals.) Polar bears are the "poster-animal" for predators, because not only are they the largest predatory land mammal on the planet, but they can also sniff out food as far as 20 miles away. Not even 6-feet thick ice can stop this bear from feeding itself and it's cubs, talk about determination. Even though polar bears do have rather impressive swimming abilities, they've still got a clever trick up their fur for an easier meal snatch. Polar bears often stalk their prey by waiting for them to pop up by a breathing hole along the ice. With a potential nose-to-tail length of ten feet, and females weighing anywhere from 330 to 650 lbs, and males typically between 775-1,300 lbs, it definitely does not have any predatory threats. So what really is contributing to the decline of these furry friends?

Cause of Listing and Main Threat to its Continued Existence: No shocker that the primary threat to polar bears is greatly influenced by the actions of humans. The primary reason of listing under the ESA is the decline of their sea ice habitat, most specifically in the regions of the United States. Polar bears rely on this sea ice to hunt for seals, and  Sea ice is rapidly thinning due to a ridiculous amount of greenhouse gas emissions being released into the atmosphere. The release of these is due to our excessive use of electricity, heating, and fuel, among many others. Scientists hypothesize that if the emissions continue to rise at the present rate, polar bears will no longer exist in most regions by the the end of the 21st century.

Geographic and Population Changes: Polar bears live in frigid areas many of us dare not venture to: The Circumpolar North. This area encompasses 19 different sub-populations which include parts of Canada, the U.S (Alaska), Greenland, Russia, and Norway. More specifically, the species is broken into four ecoregions: Archipelago, Convergent, Divergent, and Seasonal. Due to the large number of sub-populations, the bears represent a wide variation of genetics, behavior and strategies of survival. Most recently, polar bear populations are estimated to be around 20,000 to 25,000.

Listing Date and Type of Listing: The polar bear was listed as a threatened species on May 8, 2008. 

Description of the Recovery Plan: The conservation strategy is obviously aimed to protect the survival of these animals, which today are considered to be threatened. This plan has five fundamental goals. These plans are:

1. To secure a long-term persistence of polar bears as a species
2. To secure a long-term persistence of polar bears at all scales of genetic diversity, 
     behavior, and life-history
3. To protect the two sub-populations in the United States (Southern Beaufort Sea & 
    Chukchi Sea sub-populations) 
4. To continue to manage human-bear interactions 
5. To achieve this without strenuous restrictions on certain economically benificial activities.  
The number one and most important solution described in the plan is to "significantly reduce the present levels of global greenhouse gas emissions." In addition, there are plans to manage human-bear conflicts, manage subsistence harvest, protect their denning habitat, and minimize the risk of contamination from spills. 

What can you do? Since the main threat to polar bears is primarily caused by humans, it's important to fully understand what effects we are having on these animals. Not only should we be aware of those effects, but also don't forget to EDUCATE OTHERS. Some ways to help polar bears and to reduce your impact is to monitor the amount of carbon you are releasing into the atmosphere. Some simple ways to reduce are to carpool more, drive less, turn off the lights when you leave a room, and use household fuel efficiently. 

Take a few moments to really look at and admire these beautiful creatures. Notice the white light engulfing them, the resemblence of a halo highlighting their pure white bodies. Would you be able to look into these bears' eyes, and watch their home melt from right beneath their paws? Would you be able to watch that baby waiting nervously and hungry for mom to come back from a hunting trip, but she never returns? It's apparent that these animals do not look like us, and obviously they live a very different life than us humans do. But someone tell me, how could they deserve all of the pain that we are recklessly creating for them? If you are drawn to donate to help the polar bears recover, please visit https://support.worldwildlife.org/site/Donation2?df_id=10500&10500.donation=form1&s_src=AWG1308SSGC0&gclid=Cj0KEQiA6_TBBRDInaPjhcelt5oBEiQApPeTF5DNk3KchVUIaYeVR4_wb7Pn1ZK4CX6A5nf5cQjzEOAaAi7K8P8HAQ

Other Resources:
http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/about-polar-bears/essentials  
https://carbonfund.org/reduce/ 
http://www.worldwildlife.org/species/polar-bear 

Citations:
  -UFWS Polar Bear Draft Conservation Management Plan